BBA-I & BCCA-II_COST CONCEPTS AND PRODUCTION FUNCTION

COST CONCEPTS

CONTENTS
11.0 Aims and Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Various Cost Concepts
11.3 Let us sum up
11.4 Lesson –end activities
11.5 References
11.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES


11.1 INTRODUCTION

The word 'cost' has different meanings in different situations. The accounting cost concept or the historical cost concept is not useful as such for business decision-making. The accounting records end up with the balance sheet and income statements which are meant for legal, financial and tax needs of the enterprise. The financial recordings reveal what has been happening. It is a historical recording which is not of very much help to the managerial economist in his business decision-making. The actual cost is not the relevant cost concept for business decision-making because it only reveals what has been happening. The decision-making concepts of cost aim at projecting what will happen in the alternative courses of action. Business decisions involve plans for the future and require choices among different plans. These decisions necessitate profitability calculations for which a comparison of future revenues and future expenses of each alternative plan is needed.

11.2 Various Concepts of Costs

A managerial economist must have a proper understanding of the different cost concepts which are essential for clear business thinking. The several alternative bases of classifying cost and the relevance of each for different kinds of problems are to be studied. The various relevant concepts of costs used in business decisions are given below.

Total, Average and Marginal Costs

Total cost is the total cash payment made for the input needed for production. It may be explicit or implicit is the sum total of the fixed and variable costs. Average cost is the cost per unit of output. It is obtained by dividing the total cost (TC) by the total quantity produced (Q)

Average Cost =TC/Q

Marginal cost is the additional cost incurred to produce an additional unit of output. Or it is the cost of the marginal unit produced.

Example
A company produces 1000 typewriters per annum. Total fixed cost is Rs. 1,00,000
per annum. Direct material cost per typewriter is Rs. 200 and direct labour cost Rs. 100.
Variable cost per typewriter = direct material + direct labour
= 200 + 100 = Rs. 300
Total variable cost (1000x300) = Rs.300000
Fixed Cost = Rs. 100000
Total cost = Rs.400000
TC = Rs. 400000
Average Cost =TC/Q
  = Rs. 400
If output is increased by one typewriter, the cost will appear as follows:
Total variable cost (1001x300) = 300300
Fixed cost = 100000
1000
400000
Total = 400300

Here the additional cost incurred to produce the 1001th typewriter is Rs.300
(400300 - 400000). Therefore, the marginal cost per typewriter is Rs.300.

Fixed and Variable Costs
This classification is made on the basis of the degree to which they vary with the changes in volume. Fixed cost is that cost which remains constant up to a certain level of output. It is not affected by the changes in the volume of production. Then fixed cost per unit aries with output rate. When the production increases, fixed cost per unit decreases. Fixed cost includes salary paid to administrative staff, depreciation of fixed assets, rent of factory etc. These costs are fixed in the sense that they do not change in short-run. Variable cost varies directly with the variation in output. An increase in total
output results in an increase in total variable costs and decrease in total output results in a proportionate decline in the total variable costs. The variable cost per unit will be
constant. Variable costs include the costs of all inputs that vary with output like raw
materials, running costs of fixed assets such as fuel, ordinary repairs, routine maintenance
expenditure, direct labour charges etc.

The distinction of cost is important in forecasting the effect of short-run changes in
volume upon costs and profits.

Short-Run and Long-Run Costs

This cost distinction is based on the time element. Short-Run is a period during

which the physical capacity of the firm remains fixed. Any increase in output during this

period is possible only by using the existing physical capacity more intensively. Long-

Run is a period during which it is possible to change the firm's physical capacity. All the

inputs become variable in the long-term. Short-Run cost is that which varies with output

when the physical I capacity remains constant. Long-Run costs are those which vary with

output when all the inputs are variable. Short-Run costs are otherwise called variable

costs. A firm wishing to change output quickly can do it only by increasing the variable

factors. Short- Run cost concept helps the manager to take decision when a firm has to

decide whether or not to produce more or less with a given plant. Long-Run cost analysis helps to take investment decisions. Long-Run increase in output may necessitate installation of more capital equipment.

Opportunity Costs and Outlay Costs
This distinction is made on the basis of the nature of the sacrifice made. Outlay
costs are those expenses which are actually incurred by the firm. These are the actual
payments made for labour, material, plant, building, machinery, traveling, transporting
etc. These are the expense items that appear in the books of accounts. Outlay cost is an
accounting cost concept. It is also called absolute cost or actual cost. Whenever the inputs
are to be bought for cash the outlay concept is to be applied.

A businessman chooses and investment proposal from different investment
opportunities. Before taking the decision he has to compare all the opportunities and
choose the best. When he chooses the best he sacrifices the possibility of making profit
from other investment opportunities. The cost of his choice is the return that he could
have earned from other investment opportunities he has given up or sacrificed. A
businessman decides to use his own money to buy a machine for the business. The cost of
that money is the probable return on the money from the next most acceptable alternative
investment. If he invested the money at 12 percent interest, the opportunity cost of
investing in his own business would be the 12 percent interest he has forgone.

The outlay concept is applied when the inputs are to be bought from the market.
When a firm decides to make the inputs rather than buying it from the market the
opportunity cost concept is to be applied. For example, in a cloth mill, instead’ of buying
the yarn from the market they spin it themselves. The cost of this yam is really the price
at which the yarn could be sold if it were not used by them for weaving cloth.
The opportunity cost concept is made use of for long-run decisions. For example,
the cost of higher education of a student should not only be the tuition fees and book
costs but it also includes the earnings foregone by not working. This concept is very
important in capital expenditure budgeting. The cost of acquiring a petrol pump in
Trivandrum City by spending Rs. 6 lakhs is not usually the interest for that borrowed
money but it is the profit that would have been made if that Rs. 6 lakhs had been invested
in an offset printing press, which is the next best investment opportunity.
Opportunity cost concept is useful for taking short-rum decisions also. In boom
periods the scarce lathe capacity used for making a product involves the opportunity cost
of not using it to make some other product that can also produce profit. Opportunity cost
is the cost concept to use when the supply of inputs is strictly limited. Estimates of cost of
capital are essentially founded on an opportunity cost concept of investment return.
Investment decision involves opportunity costs measurable in terms of sacrificed income
from alternative investments. The opportunity cost of any action is therefore measured by
the value of the most favorable alternative course which has to be foregone if that action
is taken.
Opportunity cost arises only when there is an alternative. If there is no alternative,
opportunity cost is the estimated earnings of the next best use. Thus it represents only the
sacrificed alternative.
Hence it does not appear in financial accounts. But this concept is of very great
use in managerial decision-making.

Out-of-pocket and Book Costs
Out-of-pocket costs are those costs that involve current cash payment. Wages,
rent, interest etc., are examples of this. The out-of-pocket costs are also called explicit
costs. Book costs do not require current cash expenditure. Unpaid salary of the owner
manager, depreciation, and unpaid interest cost of owner's own fund are examples of
book costs. Book costs may be called implicit costs. But the book costs are taken into
account in determining the legal dividend payable during a period. Both book costs and
out-of-pocket costs are considered for all decisions. Book cost is the cost of self owned
factors of production. The book cost can be converted into out-of-pocket cost. If a selfowned
machinery is sold out and the service of the same is hired, the hiring charges form
the out-of-pocket cost The distinction is very helpful in taking liquidity decisions.
Incremental and Sunk costs

Incremental cost is the additional cost due to a change in the level or nature of
business activity. The change may be caused by adding a new product, adding new
machinery, replacing machinery by a better one etc. Incremental or differential cost is not
marginal cost. Marginal cost is the cost of an added (marginal) unit of output.
Sunk costs are those which are not altered by any change. They are the costs
incurred in the past. This cost is the result of past decision, and cannot be changed by
future decisions. Once an asset has been bought or an investment made, the funds locked
up represent sunk costs. As these costs do not alter when any change in activity is made
they are sunk and are irrelevant to a decision being taken now. Investments in fixed assets
are examples of sunk costs. As soon as fixed assets have been installed, their cost is sunk.
The amount of cost cannot be changed.
Incremental cost helps management to evaluate the alternatives. Incremental cost
will be different in the case of different alternatives. Sunk cost, on the other hand, will
remain the same irrespective of the alternative selected. Cost estimates of an incremental
nature only influence business decisions.

Explicit and Implicit or Imputed costs
Explicit costs are those expenses that involve cash payments. These are the actual
or business costs that appear in the books of accounts. Explicit cost is the payment made
by the employer for those factors of production hired by him from outside. These costs
include wages and salaries paid payments for raw materials, interest on borrowed capital
funds, rent on hired land, taxes paid to the government etc.
Implicit costs are the costs of the factor units that are owned by the employer
himself. It does not involve dash payment and hence does not appear in the books of
accounts. These costs did not actually incur but would have incurred in the absence of
employment of self-owned factors of production. The two normal implicit costs are
depreciation and return on capital contributed by shareholders. In small scale business
unit the entrepreneur himself acts as the manager of the business. If he were employed in
another firm he would be given salary. The salary he has thus forgone is the opportunity
cost of his services utilised in his own firm. This is an implicit cost of his business. Thus
implicit wages, implicit rent and implicit interest are the highest interest, rent and wages
which self-owned capital, building and labour respectively can earn from their next best
use. Implicit costs are not considered for finding out the loss or gains of the business, but
help a lot in business decisions.

Replacement and Historical costs
These are the two methods of valuing assets for balance sheet purpose and to find
out the cost figures from which profit can be arrived at; Historical cost is the original cost
of an asset. Historical cost valuation shows the cost of an asset as the original price paid
for the asset acquired in the past. Historical valuation is the basis for financial accounts.
Replacement cost is the price that would have to be paid currently to replace the same
asset. For example, the price of a machine at the time of purchase was Rs. 17,000 and the
present price of the machine is Rs. 20,000. The original price Rs. 17,000 is the historical
cost while Rs. 20,000 is the replacement cost. During periods of substantial change in the
price level, historical valuation gives a poor projection of the future cost intended for
managerial decision. Replacement cost is a relevant cost concept when financial
statements have to be adjusted for inflation.

Controllable and Non-controllable costs
Controllable costs are the ones which can be regulated by the executive who is in
charge of it. The concept of controllability of cost varies with levels of management. If a
cost is uncontrollable at one level of management it may be controllable at some other
level. Similarly the controllability of certain costs may be shared by two or more
executives. For example, material cost, the price of which comes under the responsibility
of the purchase executive whereas its usage comes under the responsibility of the
production executive. Direct expenses like material, labour etc. are controllable costs.
Some costs are not directly identifiable with a process or product. They are
apportioned to various processes or products in some proportion. This cost varies with the
variation in the basis of allocation and is independent of the actions of the executive of
that department. These apportioned costs are called uncontrollable costs.

Business and Full costs
A firm's business cost is the total money expenses recorded in the books of
accounts. This includes the depreciation provided on plant and equipment. It is similar to
the actual or real cost. Full cost of a firm includes not only the business costs but also
opportunity costs of the firm and normal profits. The firm's opportunity cost includes
interest on self-owned capital, the salary forgone by the entrepreneur if he were, working
in his firm. Normal profit is the minimum returns which induces the entrepreneur to
produce the same product.

Economic and Accounting Cost
Accounting costs are recorded with the intention of preparing the balance sheet
and profit and loss statements which are intended for the legal, financial and tax purposes
of the company. The accounting concept is a historical concept. It records what has
happened. The past cost data revealed by the books of accounts does not help very much
in decision-making. Decision-making needs future costs. Economic concept considers
future costs and future revenues which help future planning and choice. When the
accountant describes what has happened, the economist aims at projecting what will
happen. Accounting data ignores implicit. or imputed cost. The economist considers
decision-making costs. For this, different cost classifications relevant to different kinds of
problems are considered. The cost distinctions such as opportunity and outlay cost, shortrun
and long-run cost and replacement and historical cost are made from the economic
viewpoint.

11.3 LET US SUM UP

In this lesson initially we studied the meaning of cost, and a detailed discussion
has been made into various concepts of costs such as total cost, average cost, marginal
cost, fixed cost, variable cost; short run and long run cost, opportunity cost, out lay cost,
book costs, such cost, incremental cost, explicit and implicit cost historical cost
replacement cost, controllable abnormal controllable cost, business and full cost,
economic cost, and according cost.

11.4 LESSON – END ACTIVITIES
1. Mention the importance of opportunity cost in managerial decision making
2. Bring out the relationship between TC, MC, and AC
3. Differentiate Explicit and Implicit cost
4. Distinguish between Incremental cost and sunk cost
11.5 REFERENCES
1. Mehta, P.L. “Managerial Economics ‘Analysis, Problems & Cases’, Sultan
Chand & Sons.
2. Sundharam, K.P.M. and Sundharam E.N. “Business Economics

BBA-II_Environmental Management

Unit I: Introduction to Environment Management

Definition, Scope & Importance:

Environmental Management is the management of the interaction and impact of human societies on the environment. It is not, as the phrase might suggest, the management of the environment itself. Environmental resources management aims to ensure that ecosystem services are protected and maintained for future human generations, and also maintain ecosystem integrity through considering ethical, economic, and scientific (ecological) variables. Environmental resource management tries to identify factors affected by conflicts that rise between meeting needs and protecting resources. It is thus linked to environmental protection and sustainability.

Environmental Management offers research and opinions on use and conservation of natural resources, protection of habitats and control of hazards, spanning the field of environmental management without regard to traditional disciplinary boundaries. The journal aims to improve communication, making ideas and results from any field available to practitioners from other backgrounds. Contributions are drawn from biology, botany, chemistry, climatology, ecology, ecological economics, environmental engineering, fisheries, environmental law, forest sciences, geosciences, information science, public affairs, public health, toxicology, zoology and more.

As the principal user of nature, humanity is responsible for ensuring that its environmental impacts are benign rather than catastrophic. Environmental Management presents the work of academic researchers and professionals outside universities, including those in business, government, research establishments, and public interest groups, presenting a wide spectrum of viewpoints and approaches.

Definition: Environmental management is a process that industries, companies, and individuals undertake to regulate and protect the health of the natural world.

Scope of Environmental Management:

(a) Environmental Science:

It deals with the scientific study of environmental system (air, water, soil and land), the inherent or induced changes on organisms and the environmental damages incurred as a result of human interaction with the environment.

(b) Environmental Engineering:

It deals with the study of technical processes involved in the protection of environment from the potentially deleterious effects of human activity and improving the environmental quality for the health and well beings of humans.

(c) Environmental Management:

It promotes due regard for physical, social and economic environment of the enterprise or projects. It encourages planned investment at the start of the production chain rather than forced investment in cleaning up at the end.

It generally covers the areas as environment and enterprise objectives, scope, and structure of the environment, interaction of nature, society and the enterprise, environment impact assessment, economics of pollution, prevention, environmental management standards etc.

The importance of environmental management are as follows:

1. To clarify modern environmental concept like how to conserve biodiversity.

2. To know the more sustainable way of living.

3. To use natural resources more efficiently.

4. To know the behaviour of organism under natural conditions.

5. To know the interrelationship between organisms in populations and communities.

6. To aware and educate people regarding environmental issues and problems at local, national and international levels.

Need for public awareness- institution in environment:

Public awareness of the environment means the ability to emotionally understand the surrounding world, including the laws of the natural environment, sensitivity to all the changes occurring in the environment, understanding of cause-and-effect relationships between the quality of the environment and human behavior, an understanding of how the environment works as a system, and a sense of responsibility for the common heritage of the Earth, such as natural resources - with the aim of preserving them for future generations.

To know and understand what is good and what is better, and at the same time commit a wrongdoing, is socially more injurious than committing a wrongdoing in ignorance. Therefore, building, in a society, a new system of values with the aim of creating environmental public awareness, should include systematic training activities aimed at increasing the basic knowledge of ecology and environmental protection, and, at the same time, heightening the sensitivity of individuals to nature.

Environmental public awareness comes from a result of general knowledge, specialist knowledge of a particular problem and also sensitivity to, and a sense of, responsibility for the environment.

National Museum of Natural History

The National Museum of Natural History(External website that opens in a new window) (NMNH), a subordinate organization of the Ministry, was opened to public in 1978 to create public awareness in preservation and conservation of environment and nature. Over the years, the Museum has extended its activities in different regions of the country and set up three Regional Museums one each at Mysore (Karnataka), Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh) and Bhubaneswar (Odisha). These museums have been established to depict flora, fauna, forests, wildlife and other environmental aspects of the respective regions.

Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy (IGNFA), Dehradun, Directorate of Forest Education (DFE), Dehradun, Indian Council of Forestry Reserarch and Education (ICFRE), Dehradun, Forest Survey of India (FSI), Dehradun; Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM), Bhopal and Indian Plywood Industries Research and Training Institute (IPIRTI), Bangaluru etc. present system of forestry education and training is tailored to produce skilled forest managers so is to manage, protect and conserve the forests.

The Ministry started the scheme in 1983 to strengthen awareness, research and training in priority areas of Environmental science and management. Nine Centres of Excellence have been set up so far by the Ministry with a view to strengthening awareness, research and training in priority area of environmental science and management are as under:

• Centre for Environment Education (CEE), Ahmedabad
• CPR Environmental Education Centre (CPREEC), Chennai
• Centre for Ecological Sciences (CES) Bangaluru
• Centre of Mining Environment (CME) Dhanbad
• Salim Ali Centre for Omithology and Natural History (SACON), Coimbatore
• Centre for Environment Management of Degraded Ecosystem (CEMDE), Delhi
• Centre of Excellence in Environmental Economics at Madras School of Economics, Chennai.
• Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT), Bangaluru.
• The Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute (TBGRI), Thiruvananthapuram.

Who shapes the attitude and awareness of members of the community?

• Parents,
• teachers, colleagues, acquaintances,
• fellow-workers,
• leaders,
• media,
• moral authorities,
• scientists, and,
• politicians.

Where is public awareness of the environment formed and shaped?

• Family home, family,
• nurseries, schools, schools of higher education,
• churches and religious organizations,
• professional environment, workplace, and,
• associations.

What shapes and increases the environmental public awareness?

• Schools and academic manuals,
• messages transmitted through mass media,
• children, youth, daily, popular and specialist press,
• television and radio programmes,
• films, including documentary films,
• Internet,
• own experience and observations,
• work for organizations, and,
• social status of the family and affluence.

To sum up, environmental public awareness depends on the level of environmental awareness of particular members of the community which is affected by many factors, including cultural, ethnic and religious connections, organization of family, professional and social life, type and level of education, social status.

Fundamentals– sustainable development:

Sustainability can be defined as the practice of maintaining processes of productivity indefinitely—natural or human made—by replacing resources used with resources of equal or greater value without degrading or endangering natural biotic systems.

Sustainable Development is the organizing principle for sustaining finite resources necessary to provide for the needs of future generations of life on the planet. It is a process that envisions a desirable future state for human societies in which living conditions and resource-use continue to meet human needs without undermining the "integrity, stability and beauty" of natural biotic systems.

Agriculture:

Sustainable agriculture consists of environmentally-friendly methods of farming that allow the production of crops or livestock without damage to human or natural systems. It involves preventing adverse effects to soil, water, biodiversity, surrounding or downstream resources—as well as to those working or living on the farm or in neighboring areas.

Energy:

Sustainable energy is the sustainable provision of energy that is clean and lasts for a long period of time. Unlike the fossil fuel that most of the countries are using, renewable energy only produces little or even no pollution.The most common types of renewable energy are solar and wind energy, solar energy are commonly used on public parking meter, street lights and the roof of buildings.

Environment:

Environmental sustainability concerns the natural environment and how it endures and remains diverse and productive.

Transportation:

Transportation is a large contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. It is said that one-third of all gasses produced are due to transportation.

·         Improve public transit through the provision of larger coverage area in order to provide more mobility and accessibility, new technology to provide a more reliable and responsive public transportation network.

·         Encourage walking and biking through the provision of wider pedestrian pathway, bike share station in commercial downtown, locate parking lot far from the shopping center, limit on street parking, slower traffic lane in downtown area.

·         Increase the cost of car ownership and gas taxes through increased parking fees and tolls, encouraging people to drive more fuel efficient vehicles. 

 

 

Unsustainable to Sustainable development:

Sustainable development is not a new concept. It means living in harmony with the nature in full recognition of the needs of all other species. It is no just “the survival of the fittest”, we must help even the weakest of the species to survive because each species has a role to play that is ultimately beneficial to the earth and all its human population. 

If we care for the comfort of the present generation and do not think of the needs of the future generations, we damage the environment by various development activities, these activities will be termed as unsustainable.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Unit II: Natural resources

Renewable and non renewable resources:

Renewable resources are resources that are replenished by the environment over relatively short periods of time. This type of resource is much more desirable to use because often a resource renews so fast that it will have regenerated by the time you've used it up.

1. Non Renewable Resource

A non- renewable resource is something that is not being replaced as we consume it. These are exhaustible in nature. It’s a kind of resource that cannot be remade, regrown or regenerated on a scale compared to its consumption.

·       Crude Oil is a good example of a non-renewable resource. It is used to make petrol, diesel and other fuels, as well as plastics, such as grocery bags. We  use billions of gallons of oil every year, but it takes millions of years to be replaced. Oil is being used much faster than it is being produced. Once all the oil from the earth is used up, it is gone forever.  It takes millions of years for some more to be produced.

·       Coal

·       Uranium

are non-renewable.

                These resources being limited, not only the burning but also the extraction of these energy sources has dire consequences to our environment.

 

Crude oil (Petroleum)

   Petroleum, also known as crude oil, is a naturally occurring toxic combustible liquid primarily made up of hydrocarbons. Petroleum is the result of partial decay of living organisms occurring in the rock strata of certain geological formations.

 

Coal

   Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock formed from fossilized plants. Coal consists of amorphous carbon with various organic and some inorganic compounds and  normally occurs in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds.

 

Natural Gas

   Natural gas is a combustible mixture of hydrocarbon gases that occurs with petroleum deposits consisting primarily of methane. It is found with other fossil fuels and in coal beds and is created by the decay of methanogenic organisms in marshes, bogs, and landfills. Lower temperatures are likely to produce more petroleum, and higher temperatures are likely to produce more natural gas.

 

Nuclear Power

   Nuclear power is produced by controlled nuclear fission (splitting atoms). In most cases nuclear power plants use nuclear fission reactions to heat water, using the steam to produce electricity. Uranium, specifically, uranium 235, is one of the few elements easily fission.

 

2. Renewable Energy Sources

A renewable resource is something that is being continually replaced faster than we use it up. These are sources of energy which can be generated continuously in nature and are inexhaustible.

·     Solar energy is considered a renewable source of energy because the sun’s energy is continuous.

·     Wind Power

·     Water Power (Hydro-electricity from dammed rivers, tidal streams and ocean waves)

·     Thermal Power from the earth (Geothermal: Using the earth’s heat to generate electricity)

·     Thermal Power from the ocean

·     Biomass - the burning of plant material, is a renewable resource. Even though the burning puts carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, it also prevents a much greater amount of methane being released by the decomposing vegetation, so it is rated as positive.

·     Trees are a renewable source because we can replant them. 

 

           

 

Role of an individual in conservation of natural resources:

Every individual has responsibility to use natural resources judiciously. This will give equal opportunity to all to use the resources for the benefit of mankind. One should not be selfish to spend the available resources without thinking of other fellow beings. There is no limit to spend natural resources if available plenty but at the same time one should realize that natural resources are non-renewable sources. The future also depends on such resources. Every individual should think himself or herself as a world think himself or himself as a world citizen. The whole world is a family and all are inter-dependant for a better life. The mother earth has given enough for all to satisfy minimum wants but not enough to utilize. Every individual has a role in the conservation of natural resource like in using water electricity woods, foods etc. water is life and every drop is precious similarly every chemical power saved is like it is produced. Woods should be used so as not to destroy the forest for procurement of more food than needed is like putting other starving. Equitable use of resources for sustainable life styles.

Everyone has the right to live in this world. All living creatures belong to mother earth and they all have their shine of resources available. All these resources like land, energy, food, mineral, water, forest etc. have to be distributed in an equitable way for sustainable lifestyles of all creatures. The responsibility lies more on the human population because they have got the thinking power and the wisdom to judge between good and bad. Hence responsibility should be for all human being for an equitable use of natural resources for sustainable use of natural resources for sustainable life styles of all in this mother earth.

Effects of Development on Environment:

·         The spread of disease via environment

·         Man’s activity has impaired protective ozone cover.

·         Over the natural resources such as land, water, minerals coal, oil etc. development has undermined the stock of natural resources.

·         It has resulted into global warning.

·         There has been addition of toxic pollutants to the environment.

·         It has caused loss of bio-diversity or genetic erosion.

Equitable use of resources for sustainable life cycles:

Scarcity of resources is the most prevailing problems of modern technology. The twenty-first century will see growing human needs for resources since many parts of the world are using natural resources at a rate faster than the natural processes can recreate it.

Natural resources are limited. For example, the existing water sources are being subjected to heavy pollution. Global climatic changes are altering the quality of fresh water sources as a consequence of unknown effects on the hydrological cycle.

Sustainable development is currently being discussed as a focal theme in the field of development, planning and other associated aspects. In the light of self-defeating current mode of development and recurrent natural calamities, people are urged to ponder over the faults, shortcomings, lacunae, discrepancies and limitations of the ongoing developmental process and production system.

It is essential to sustain the natural resources. We should conserve natural resources so that it may yield sustainable benefit to the present generation while maintaining its potential to meet the needs of the future generation. There are three specific objectives to conserve living resources:

1. To ensure that any utilization of the ecosystem is sustainable.

2. To preserve biodiversity and

3. To maintain essential ecological processes.

Resource management should be less energy-intensive, suitable to local ecology and needs of the people, less cost-intensive and more viable in terms of economy, ecology and culture. 

Preserving resources for future generation:

Our natural resources exist in a delicate balance and are subjected to environmental changes. That’s why it’s important that we all do our part to conserve, preserve, and care for the Earth’s resources — and protect the environment that sustains us with food, fuel, shelter and medicine.

Preservation of resources helps protect and restore our natural resources through science, exploration, education, and outreach.

• Recycle and Reuse.
• Conserve energy and water
• Get involved in tree planting, seed collection, and weed control.
• Instead of converting forest land to agriculture land, make use of  available land for multiple cropping

Use of pressure cooker for cooking as it saves 75% of energy

The rights of animals:

Under most state and federal laws, animals primarily are regarded as property and have little or no legal rights of their own. Because of this status, generally there is a presumption—provided no law is violated—in favor of the owner’s control and use over the best interests of the animal. If, for example, someone decides that the family dog or cat becomes “too much trouble,” the animal companion can be legally relinquished to a veterinarian and euthanized.

Anticruelty laws require that animals be provided with basic necessities and be treated humanely, unless it is “necessary” or “justifiable” to deny them food, water or shelter. As long as individuals comply with these minimal standards, they may go unpunished for actions that are not necessarily in the best interest of the animal and that may even cause pain and suffering, such as relinquishing a cat to a pound that sells animals for research and experiments.

For example, an individual who starved his chicken “for no good reason” could be prosecuted. However, in the poultry industry it is accepted practice to starve hens to induce their feathers to molt. In this forced molting, hens are deprived of any food for up to 14 days as a means of boosting egg production. Although this causes extreme suffering and violates basic anticruelty provisions, forced molting is standard industry wide, and it would be argued that the practice is justifiable and necessary to meet public demand for eggs.

The Animal Welfare Division is entrusted with the implementation of the provisions of the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960 (59 of 1960). Plan Schemes are in operation for implementation of the statutory obligations under this Act. Two statutory bodies viz, Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) and Committee for the Purpose of Supervision and Control of Experiments on Animals (CPCSEA) have also been set up under this Act. Apart from this there is a subordinate body namely, National Institute of Animal Welfare (NIAW), Ballabhgarh, Haryana for imparting training and education on diversified subjects in Animal Welfare including animal management, behavior and ethics.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Unit III: Air Pollution

Air Pollution – Sources, Effect on Human and Animal Health and on Vegetation

       Air pollution is a phenomenon by which particles (solid or liquid) and gases contaminate the environment. Such contamination can cause health problems in humans.

1.    Sources Not all pollutants are a result of human activity.

       Natural pollutants  For example, volcanic activity produces sulphur dioxide. Forest fires or windblown dust can cause particulate pollution.

Secondary pollutants are those that are produced in the atmosphere by chemical and physical processes from primary pollutants and natural constituents. For example, ozone is produced by hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen (both of which may be produced by car emissions) and sunlight.

a. Particulate Matter. Particulate matter (PM) is the term used to describe solid or liquid particles that are airborne and dispersed (i.e., scattered, separated). PM originates from a variety of anthropogenic (human origin) sources, including diesel trucks, power plants, wood stoves, and industrial processes.

Effect: “Fine” particles, are especially detrimental to human health because they can penetrate deep into the lungs. Scientific studies show a link between PM 2.5 (2.5 microns) and a series of significant health effects, even death. Fine particles are the major cause of reduced visibility. Particles containing nitrogen and sulphur are deposited as acid rain on land or water bodies. This alters the nutrient balance and acidity of those environments. PM causes spoiling and erosion damage to materials, including culturally important objects such as carved monuments and statues.

b.    Carbon Monoxide. At high levels it is a poisonous gas. It is formed when carbon in fuels is not burned completely. The major source of CO is motor vehicle exhaust.  In cities, as much as 95 percent of all CO emissions result from automobile emissions. Industrial processes also emit CO.  Natural sources of CO are wild fires.

       Effect: CO has serious health effects on humans. An exposure to 50 ppm of CO for eight hours can cause reduced psychomotor performance.  At concentration of 750 ppm it is lethal to humans. Haemoglobin of red blood corpuscles which carries oxygen to body parts, has 240 times higher affinity to CO than oxygen. However, the effects of CO poisoning are reversible once the CO source has been removed.

c.    Sulfur Dioxide. Almost 90 percent of anthropogenic SO2 emissions are the result of fossil fuel combustion (mostly coal) in power plants and other stationary sources. A natural source of sulphur oxides is volcanic activities.

       Effect: Exposure to SO2 irritates the human upper respiratory tract.  SO2 is one of the precursors of acid rain (the term used to describe the deposition of acidic substances from the atmosphere).  Prolonged exposure to SO2 and sulphate PM causes serious damage to materials such as marble, limestone, and mortar. The carbonates (e.g., limestone, CaCO3) in these materials are replaced by sulphates (e.g., gypsum, CaSO4) that are water-soluble and may be washed away easily by rain. This results in an eroded surface.

d.    Nitrogen Dioxide. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a reddish-brown gas and is present in the highest concentrations among other oxides of nitrogen in ambient air. Nitric oxide (NO) and NO2 are collectively known as NOx. Anthropogenic emissions of NOx come from high-temperature combustion processes, such as those occurring in automobiles and power plants. Natural sources of NO2 are lightning and various biological processes in soil.

       Effect: . It is a lung irritant as oxides of nitrogen, much like sulphur dioxide, are precursors of acid rain and visibility-reducing fine nitrate particles.

e.    Ozone. Ozone (O3) is a secondary pollutant and is formed in the atmosphere by the reaction of molecular oxygen, O2, and atomic oxygen, O, which comes from the photochemical decomposition of NO2. Volatile organic compounds or VOCs (e.g., what one smells when refuelling the car) must also be present if O3 is to accumulate in the atmosphere.

       Effect: O3 occurs naturally in the stratosphere and provides a protective layer from the sun’s ultraviolet rays high above the earth. However, at ground level, O3 is a lung and eye irritant and can cause asthma attacks, especially in young children or other susceptible individuals. O3, being a powerful oxidant, also attacks materials and has been found to cause reduced crop yields and stunt tree growth.

f.     Lead. The major sources of lead (Pb) in the atmosphere are industrial processes from metals smelters. The major emissions of Pb result from cars burning leaded gasoline. Aircraft fuels contain large amounts of Pb.

       Effect: Pb is a toxic metal and can accumulate in the blood, bones, and soft tissues. Even low exposure to Pb can cause mental retardation in children.

g.    Hazardous Air Pollutants. Hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), or toxic air pollutants, are pollutants known to cause or suspected of causing cancer or other serious human health effects or damage to the ecosystem. Examples of HAPs are heavy metals (e.g., mercury), volatile chemicals (e.g., benzene), HAPs are emitted from many sources e.g., electric power plants, dry cleaners, cars, indoor sources (e.g., some building materials and cleaning solvents, and other sources (e.g., wildfires).

       Effect: Potential human health effects of HAPs include headache, dizziness, nausea, birth defects, and cancer. Environmental effects of HAPs include toxicity to aquatic plants and animals as well as the accumulation of pollutants in the food chain.

Green house effect:

The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions. Since part of this re-radiation is back towards the surface and the lower atmosphere, it results in an elevation of the average surface temperature above what it would be in the absence of the gases

How the Greenhouse Effect Work

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is an atmospheric constituent that plays several vital roles in the environment. It absorbs infrared radiation in the atmosphere. It plays a crucial role in the weathering of rocks. It is the raw material for photosynthesis and its carbon is incorporated into organic matter in the biosphere and may eventually be stored in the Earth as fossil fuels.

Most of the sun's energy that falls on the Earth's surface is in the visible light portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. This is in large part because the Earth's atmosphere is transparent to these wavelengths (we all know that with a functioning ozone layer, the higher frequencies like ultraviolet are mostly screened out). Part of the sunlight is reflected back into space, depending on the albedo or reflectivity of the surface. Part of the sunlight is absorbed by the Earth and held as thermal energy. This heat is then re-radiated in the form of longer wavelength infrared radiation. While the dominant gases of the atmosphere (nitrogen and oxygen) are transparent to infrared, the so-called greenhouse gasses, primarily water vapor (H₂O), CO₂, and methane (CH₄), absorb some of the infrared radiation. They collect this heat energy and hold it in the atmosphere, delaying its passage back out of the atmosphere.

Due in part to the warming effects of the greenhouse gases, the global average temperature is about 15°C (59°F). Without the greenhouse gases the global average temperature would be much colder, about -18°C (0°F).

Greenhouse Gas Induced Global Warming

Since the industrial revolution got into full swing in the 19th century we have been burning ever increasing amounts of fossil fuels (coal, oil, gasoline, natural gas) in electric generating plants, manufacturing plants, trains, automobiles, airplanes, etc. Burning releases CO₂ into the atmosphere (much the same as respiration does). These fossil fuels may have formed tens or hundreds of millions of years ago from the buried and preserved remains of plant and animal matter whose carbon originated via photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis and respiration in plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, etc. exchange carbon between the CO₂ in the atmosphere and carbon compounds in organisms. But humans are now putting this natural carbon cycle out of balance. Because of the emission of CO₂ long-stored in fossil fuels the percentage of CO₂ in the atmosphere has increased from about 289 parts per million before the industrial revolution to over 360 parts per million and rising. Sometime during the 21st century the concentration of CO₂ will be twice what it was before the industrial revolution. With higher CO₂ concentrations come expectations of a stronger greenhouse effect and therefore warmer global temperatures. 

Global warming

Day by day the earth is warming due to Green house gases produced by human activities. 

Table showing global warming potential of green house gases.

 S.No  Green house Gas                    Global warming potential

 1.        Co2 – Carbon dioxide                         1

 2.        Methane                                              213

 3.        Nitrous oxide                                       310

 4.        Hydrofluorocarbons                            140  - 1770

 5.        Petrofluorocarbons                            6500 – 92006

 6.        Sulphur hexafluoride                           3900

            Green house gases are produced by various human activities, fossil fuel consumption,  industrialization.

            As a result of accumulation of green house gases there is climate change and change in seasons. The effect of climate change could be worse than the two world wars. Storms and floods are getting stronger. Snow on the Himalayas is melting at an alarming rate.

1.    Mechanism of Global warming

       The sun’s rays pass through the clear atmosphere.  When the atmosphere is clear and unpolluted infrared rays are absorbed and some are reflected back.  However, when the atmosphere is polluted the infra red rays are scattered by green house gases and are the cause of global warming.

he result is melting of the snows and  an increase in sea levels.  Low lying countries and states viz. Holland, Maladives, Sri Lanka, parts of Mumbai might be lost forever due to a rise in sea level.

Presently 10% of the earth’s landmass is covered with snow.

Outside the polar region, Himalaya has the maximum concentration of glaciers.

            9.04% of the Himalaya is covered with glaciers. The glaciers of the Himalaya are the Third Pole. They feed the giant rivers of Asia, and support half of humanity. Climate change has led to rain, rather than snow,  falling even at higher altitudes. This also accelerates the melting of glaciers.

India has 5243 glaciers covering an area of 37579 km2 and containing 142.88 km2 of ice.  The Gangotri glacier, the source of the Ganga is receding at  20-23 miles per year.          Some of the most devastating effects of glacial meltdown occurs when glacial lakes overflow and the phenomena of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) take place.

Climate change thus initially leads to widespread flooding, but over time, as the snow disappears there will be draught in the summer. In the Ganga, the loss of glacier meltdown would reduce July – September flows by two thirds, causing water shortages for 500 million people and 37 percent of India’s irrigated land.

Measures to prevent global  warming.

To combat these changes the KYOTO  PROTOCOL was created and was signed by 170 countries. They have resolved to reduce  green house gas emissions by 5.2 % as compared to the levels in 1990 during 2008 to 2012. U.S.A. has not yet signed the Kyoto protocol.

3. Clean Development Mechanism

       Under this mechanism, industrialized countries can undertake emission reduction projects in developing countries.  This was agreed to because emission reduction projects are more costly in their own countries.

What does this mean?

            The developed country would be given credits (Carbon Credits) for meeting its emissions reduction targets and the developing country would be paid money for setting up clean technology to set up the project. Carbon credits are certificates issued to countries that reduce their emission of greenhouse gases.  Carbon credits are measured in Certified Emission Reductions (CERs). 

Each CER is equivalent to one ton of carbon dioxide reduction.

Ozone Layer Depletion:

       Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used in refrigerators and aerosol sprays cause a depletion of the protective ozone layer over the earth’s surface. Reduction in the use of Ozone depleting substances by using alternative chemicals to CFCs will cause reduction in size of the ozone hole.  The use of alternatives to CFCs has been made mandatory by the Montreal protocol (1987). India and several other countries have phased out the use of CFCs as refrigerants.

Chlorofluorocarbons and ozone

                Many people have heard that the ozone hole is caused by chemicals called CFCs, short for chlorofluorocarbons. CFCs escape into the atmosphere from refrigeration and propellant devices and processes. In the lower atmosphere, they are so stable that they persist for years, even decades. This long lifetime allows some of the CFCs to eventually reach the stratosphere. In the stratosphere, ultraviolet light breaks the bond holding chlorine atoms (Cl) to the CFC molecule. A free chlorine atom goes on to participate in a series of chemical reactions that both destroy ozone and return the free chlorine atom to the atmosphere unchanged, where it can destroy more and more ozone molecules.

 

 

 

 

Unit IV: Water and marine Pollution

Water Pollution: Pollution by sewage, Acid rains, Health related issues

Water Pollution:

       Water pollution is also an increasing problem due to population explosion. Water is considered the essence of life. There is no life without water. Since 70% of the earth is covered with water, one might presume that there is no cause for worry.  In fact, 3 sides of the Indian subcontinent is surrounded by water. And there are several rivers, lakes, and other sources of water within the country as well. However, the fact is that less than 3 percent of the water we see can be used for human consumption and industrial uses. Nearly 10 percent of the world’s population faces chronic freshwater shortage.  This figure may rise if the population growth is uncontrolled.  As in the case of air pollution,  increasing population calls for increasing numbers of factories. These factories lead to various kinds of pollution, including water pollution. Further, India being an agrarian country, pesticides used for agriculture, also cause water pollution.

       One of the classic examples of water pollution in India is the river Ganges. This river is considered sacred. More than 400 million people live along the Ganges River.  An estimated 2,000,000 persons ritually bathe daily in the river, as it is considered holy by Hindus. People bathe in it for spiritual renewal and drink water from it. But people do not realize that along with washing off their sins in the river, they also wash off their body wastes, leading to pollution of the holy water of the river. Further, cremated and partially cremated bodies are dumped into the river. Although, dumping these bodies is a religious act in India among the Hindus, but at what cost? Recent studies show that there are more than 25,000 small-scale industries in just one of the states sharing the river and dispose off their waste in the river. In Uttar Pradesh, one of the states sharing the river “sewage containing excreta of about 3 million people is being released into the Gomti in the eight-km stretch from Gaughat to Hanuman Setu in Lucknow.” Currently the river is so polluted that some experts believe such water should not even be exposed in nature without being treated.  The story of the other Indian rivers is not different.  The Mithi river that flows through the city of Mumbai, is heavily polluted.  Delhi’s sacred Yamuna river is said to be “a putrid ribbon of black sludge” where fecal bacteria is 10,000 over safety limits despite a 15-year program  to solve this problem.

1.    Cause

a.     Pollution by sewage When toxic substances enter lakes, streams, rivers, oceans, and other water bodies, they get dissolved or lie suspended in water or get deposited on the bed. This results in the pollution of water whereby the quality of the water deteriorates, affecting aquatic ecosystems. Pollutants can also seep down and affect the groundwater deposits.

         Water pollution has many sources. The most polluting of them are the city sewage and industrial waste discharged into the rivers. The facilities to treat waste water are not adequate in any city in India.  Presently, only about 10% of the waste water generated is treated; the rest is discharged as it is into our water bodies. Due to this, pollutants enter groundwater, rivers, and other water bodies. Such water, which ultimately ends up in our households, is often highly contaminated and carries disease-causing microbes. Agricultural run-off, or the water from the fields that drains into rivers, is another major water pollutant as it contains fertilizers and pesticides.

b.     Domestic sewage refers to waste water that is discarded from households. Also referred to as sanitary sewage, such water contains a wide variety of dissolved and suspended impurities.

         It amounts to a very small fraction of the sewage by weight but it is large by volume and contains impurities such as organic materials and plant nutrients that tend to rot. The main organic materials are food and vegetable waste. Plant nutrients come from chemical soaps, washing powders, etc. Domestic sewage is also very likely to contain disease-causing microbes. Thus, disposal of domestic waste water is a significant technical problem. Sewage generated from the urban areas in India has multiplied manifold since 1947.

         Today, many people dump their garbage into streams, lakes, rivers, and seas, thus making water bodies the final resting place of cans, bottles, plastics, and other household products. The various substances that we use for keeping our houses clean add to water pollution as they contain harmful chemicals. In the past, people mostly used soaps made from animal and vegetable fat for all types of washing.  But most of today’s cleaning products are synthetic detergents and come from the petrochemical industry. Most detergents and washing powders contain phosphates, which are used to soften the water among other things. These and other chemicals contained in washing powders affect the health of all forms of life in the water.

c.      Agricultural Run off  The use of land for agriculture and the practices followed in cultivation greatly affect the quality of groundwater. Intensive cultivation of crops causes chemicals from fertilizers (e.g. nitrate) and pesticides to seep into the groundwater, a process commonly known as leaching. Routine applications of fertilizers and pesticides for agriculture and indiscriminate disposal of industrial and domestic wastes are increasingly being recognized as significant sources of water pollution.

         The high nitrate content in groundwater is mainly from irrigation run-off from agricultural fields where chemical fertilizers have been used indiscriminately.

d.     Industrial effluents Waste water from manufacturing or chemical processes in industries contributes to water pollution. During the last fifty years, the number of industries in India has grown rapidly. But water pollution is concentrated within a few subsectors, mainly in the form of toxic wastes and organic pollutants. Out of this, a large portion can be traced to the processing of industrial chemicals and to the food products industry. In fact, a number of large - and medium - sized industries in the region covered by the Ganga Action Plan do not have adequate effluent treatment facilities. Most of these defaulting industries are sugar mills, distilleries, leather processing industries, and thermal power stations. Most major industries have treatment facilities for industrial effluents. But this is not the case with small-scale industries, which cannot afford enormous investments in pollution control equipment as their profit margin is very slender.

e.     Effects of water pollution  The effects of water pollution are not only devastating to people but also to animals, fish, and birds. Polluted water is unsuitable for drinking, recreation, agriculture, and industry. It diminishes the aesthetic quality of lakes and rivers. More seriously, contaminated water destroys aquatic life and reduces its reproductive ability. Eventually, it is a hazard to human health. Nobody can escape the effects of water pollution.

         The individual and the community can help minimize water pollution by simple housekeeping.

f.      Biochemical oxygen demand, or BOD  The amount of organic material that can rot in the sewage is measured by the biochemical oxygen demand. BOD is the amount of oxygen required by micro-organisms to decompose the organic substances in sewage. Therefore, the more organic material there is in the sewage, the higher the BOD. It is among the most important parameters for the design and operation of sewage treatment plants. BOD levels of industrial sewage may be many times that of domestic sewage. Dissolved oxygen is an important factor that determines the quality of water in lakes and rivers. The higher  the concentration of dissolved oxygen, the better the water quality. When sewage enters a lake or stream, micro-organisms begin to decompose the organic materials. Oxygen is consumed as micro-organisms use it in their metabolism. This can quickly deplete the available oxygen in the water. When the dissolved oxygen levels drop too low, many aquatic species perish. In fact, if the oxygen level drops to zero, the water becomes septic. When organic compounds decompose without oxygen, it gives rise to the undesirable odors usually associated with septic or putrid conditions.

g.     Schistosomiasis (also known as bilharzia, bilharziosis or snail fever) is a parasitic disease caused by several species of trematodes (platyhelminth infection, or “flukes”), a parasitic worm of the genus Schistosoma.

         Although it has a low mortality rate, schistosomiasis often is a chronic illness that can damage internal organs and, in children, impair growth and cognitive development. Schistosomiasis is the second most socioeconomically devastating parasitic disease after malaria.

            This disease is most commonly found in Asia, Africa, and South America, especially in areas where the water contains numerous freshwater snails, which may carry the parasite. The disease affects many people in developing countries, particularly children who may acquire the disease by swimming or playing in infected water.

Eutrophication  When fresh water is artificially supplemented with nutrients, it results in an abnormal increase in the growth of water plants. This is known as eutrophication. The discharge of waste from industries, agriculture, and urban communities into water bodies generally stretches the biological capacities of aquatic systems. Chemical run-off from fields also adds nutrients to water. Excess nutrients cause the water body to become choked with organic substances and organisms. When organic matter exceeds the capacity of the micro-organisms in water that break down and recycle the organic matter, it encourages rapid growth, or blooms, of algae. When they die, the remains of the algae add to the organic wastes already in the water. Eventually, the water becomes deficient in oxygen. Anaerobic organisms (those that do not require oxygen to live) then attack the organic wastes, releasing gases such as methane and hydrogen sulphide, which are harmful to the oxygen-requiring (aerobic) forms of life. The result is a foul-smelling, waste-filled body of water. This is a growing problem in freshwater lakes all over India. Eutrophication can produce problems such as bad taste and odours as well as green scum algae. Also, the growth of rooted plants increases, causing a decrease in the amount of oxygen in the deepest waters of the lake. It also leads to death of all forms of life in the water bodies.

         Punjab Pollution Control Board revealed that in villages along the nullah, calcium, magnesium, fluoride, mercury, beta-endosulphan and heptachlor pesticide were more than permissible limit (MPL) in ground and tap waters. Additionally,  the water had high concentration of COD and BOD (chemical and biochemical oxygen demand), ammonia, phosphate, chloride, chromium, arsenic and chlorpyrifos pesticide. The ground water also contains nickel and selenium, while the tap water has high concentration of lead, nickel and cadmium.

i.      The Mithi River. This flows through the city of Mumbai, and  is heavily polluted.

j.          The Ganges

Millions depend on the polluted Ganges river. As the Ganges enters the city of Banares, Hinduism’s sacred river contains 60,000 faecal coliform bacteria per 100 millilitres, 120 times more than is considered safe for bathing. Four miles downstream, with inputs from 24 gushing sewers and 60,000 pilgrim-bathers, the concentration is 3,000 times over the safety limit. In places, the Ganges becomes black and septic. Corpses, of semi-cremated adults or enshrouded babies, drift slowly by. More than 400 million people live along the Ganges River. An estimated 2,000,000 persons ritually bathe daily in the river, which is considered holy by Hindus.

While the Ganges may be considered holy, there are some problems associated with the ecology. It is filled with chemical wastes, sewage and even the remains of human and animal corpses which carry major health risks by either direct bathing in the water (e.g. bilharziasis infection), or by drinking (the fecal-oral route).

k.     The Yamuna Delhi’s sacred Yamuna River is “a putrid ribbon of black sludge” where fecal bacteria is 10,000 over safety limits despite a 15-year program to address the problem. Cholera epidemics are also known to occur.

Acid Rain :

     Acid rain is rain consisting of water droplets that are unusually acidic because of atmospheric pollution.

            Acidic deposition occurs in two ways: wet and dry. Wet deposition is any form of precipitation that removes acids from the atmosphere and deposits them on the Earth’s surface. In dry deposition polluting particles and gases stick to the ground via dust and smoke in the absence of precipitation. This form of deposition is dangerous because precipitation can eventually wash pollutants into streams, lakes, and rivers.

Cause

         Acid rain is caused by the burning of fossil fuels.  Burning oil, gas and coal in power stations releases Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) into the atmosphere.

         Burning oil and gas in motor vehicles puts nitrogen oxides (NOX) into the atmosphere.

            These gases mix with water droplets in the atmosphere creating weak solutions of nitric and sulphuric acids. When precipitation occurs these solutions fall as acid rain.

         SO2

         Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is generally a byproduct of industrial processes and burning of fossil fuels. Ore smelting, coal-fired power generators and natural gas processing are the main contributors.

b.     NOx

         The main source of NOx emissions is the combustion of fuels in motor vehicles, residential and commercial furnaces,  industrial and electrical-utility boilers and engines, and other equipment.

c.      Automobiles produce about half of the world’s nitrogen oxide. As the number of automobiles in use increases, so does the amount of acid rain.

d.     Power plants  that burn fossil fuels also contribute significantly to nitrogen oxide emission.

e.     Natural Causes

a.     Fires,

b.     volcanic eruptions,

c.      bacterial decomposition, and

d.     lightening

also greatly increase the amount of nitrogen oxide on the planet.

How Do We Measure Acid Rain?

            Acid rain is measured using a scale called “pH.” The lower a substance’s pH, the more acidic it is. Pure water has a pH of 7.0. Normal rain is slightly acidic because carbon dioxide dissolves into it, so it has a pH of about 5.5.  As of the year 2000, the most acidic rain falling in the US has a pH of about 4.3.

Effects

a.     It increases the acidity levels of rivers, lakes and seas. This can kill aquatic life.

b.     It increases the acidity levels of soils. This can kill vegetation.

c.      Roots and leaves of forests in Germany and Scandinavia have been destroyed as the result   of acid rain emissions from the UK.

d.         It can erode buildings and monuments (particularly if they are made from limestone).

The brilliant white of the Taj Mahal is slowly fading to a sickly yellow. In the famous “Taj Mahal Case” a very strong step was taken by Supreme Court to save the Taj Mahal being polluted by fumes and more than 200 factories were closed down.

e.    It can also corrode modern buildings, cars, railroad tracks, airplanes, steel bridges, and pipes above and below ground.

Solutions.

1.    Industry can reduce acid rain creation by using coal with low sulphur content.  They can remove the sulphur from smoke released from their plants, and limit processes known to generate high levels of acid rain.

2.    Environmentalists advocate the installation of sulphur cleaning scrubbers in factories, washing sulphur out of coal, and finding new methods of burning coal. Power plant operators are looking for less expensive solutions to the problem.

Pollution by sewerage, industry runoff degradation due to biological changes:

One pollutant in the ocean is sewage. Human sewage largely consists of excrement from toilet-flushing; wastewater from bathing, laundry, and dishwashing; and animal and vegetable matter from food preparation that is disposed through an in-sink garbage disposal. Because coasts are densely populated, the amount of sewage reaching seas and oceans is of particular concern because some substances it contains can harm ecosystems and pose a significant public health threat. In addition to the nutrients which can cause overenrichment of receiving waterbodies, sewage carries an array of potentially disease-causing microbes known as pathogens.

Animal wastes from feedlots and other agricultural operations (e.g., manure-spreading on cropland) pose concerns similar to those of human wastes by virtue of their microbial composition. Just as inland rivers, lakes, and groundwater can be contaminated by pathogenic microbes, so can coastal waters. Runoff from agricultural areas also contains nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen, which can cause overenrichment in coastal regions that ultimately receive the runoff.

The major types of ocean pollutants from industrial sources can be generally categorized as petroleum, hazardous, thermal, and radioactive. Petroleum products are oil and oil-derived chemicals used for fuel, manufacturing, plastics-making, and many other purposes. Hazardous wastes are chemicals that are toxic (poisonous at certain levels), reactive (capable of producing explosive gases), corrosive (able to corrode steel), or ignitable (flammable). Thermal wastes are heated wastewaters, typically from power plants and factories, where water is used for cooling purposes. Radioactive wastes contain chemical elements having an unstable nucleus that will spontaneously decay with the concurrent emission of ionizing radiation.

Sewage and Agricultural Wastes

Sewage originates primarily from domestic, commercial, and industrial sources. In many developed countries, these wastes typically are delivered either to on-site septic systems or to centralized sewage treatment facilities. In both methods, sewage is treated before being discharged, either underground (in the case of septic tanks) or to receiving surface-water bodies (in the case of sewage treatment plants), typically a stream, river, or coastal outlet.

Although sewage treatment facilities are designed to accommodate and treat sewage from their service area, partly treated or even untreated sewage sometimes is discharged. Causative factors include decayed infrastructure ; facility malfunctions; or heavy rainfall events which overwhelm systems using combined sewers and stormwater drains (known as combined sewer overflows). In unsewered areas, improperly designed or malfunctioning septic tanks can contaminate groundwater and surface water, including coastal waters. In some developed regions (e.g., Halifax Harbor in Nova Scotia, Canada), raw sewage continues to pour into harbors, bays, and coastal waters. In developing countries with no on-site or centralized sanitation facilities, no opportunity exists for any type of treatment, and human wastes go directly into surface waters, including the coastal ocean.

Sewage Sludge.

Another source of ocean pollution by sewage-related waste is the disposal of biosolids, a semisolid byproduct of the sewage treatment process, often called sludge. Historically, sludge in developed nations was disposed in coastal waters: New York's twenty sewage treatment plants, for example, once disposed their sludge offshore in a region known as the New York Bight. Although today's environmental regulations in the United States prohibit this practice, sewage sludge is still disposed at sea in some countries.

Agricultural Wastes.

Animal wastes often reach waterbodies via runoff across the land surface, or by seepage through the surface soil layers. Hence, agricultural runoff containing animal wastes does not receive any "treatment" except what is naturally afforded by microbial activity during its transit to a waterbody. In coastal watersheds, these wastes can flow through river networks that eventually empty into the sea.

Coastal Eutrophication.

Nutrients and organic materials from plants, animals, and humans that enter coastal waters, either directly or indirectly, can stimulate a biological, chemical, and physical progression known as eutrophication. Coastal eutrophication is commonly observed in estuaries , bays, and marginal seas. In a broad sense, coastal eutrophication mirrors the eutrophication of lakes. For example, as increased nutrients stimulate algal and other plant growth, light transmission decreases. The eventual bacterial decay of algae and other plants lowers the dissolved oxygen level in the water. In extreme cases, all of the oxygen can be removed.

Human Health.

Sewage, particularly if partially treated or untreated, brings high microbe concentrations into the ocean. Human diseases can be caused by waterborne pathogens that contact the skin or eyes; waterborne pathogens that are accidentally ingested when water is swallowed; or foodborne pathogens found in the tissues of fish and shellfish consumed as seafood. ^*

Beach pollution consequently is a persistent public health problem. Annually, thousands of swimming advisories and beach closings are experienced because high levels of disease-causing microbes are found in the water. Sewage often is responsible for the harmful microbial levels.

Seafood contaminated by sewage-related pathogens sickens untold numbers of people worldwide. Regulatory agencies will close a fishery when contamination is detected. However, many countries lack regulatory oversight or the resources to adequately monitor their fisheries.

Industrial Wastes

Industrial wastes primarily enter coastal waters from terrestrial (land-based) activities. Industries, like municipalities and other entities that generate wastes, dispose of many liquid wastes through wastewater systems (and ultimately to waterbodies), whereas they dispose of their solid wastes in landfills.

The quantity and characteristics of industrial wastewater depends on the type of industry, its water and wastewater management, and its type of waste pretreatment (if any) before delivery to a wastewater (sewage) treatment plant. Because industrial waste frequently goes down the same sewers as domestic and commercial nonindustrial waste, sewage often contains high levels of industrial chemicals and heavy metals (e.g., lead, mercury, cadmium, and arsenic).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Unit V: Human population & environment

Human Population Growth

Introduction

            The rapid growth of the world’s population over the past one hundred years results from a difference between the rate of birth and the rate of death. The growth in human population around the world affects all people due to its impact on the economy and environment. The current rate of population growth is a significant burden to human well-being. Understanding the factors which affect population growth can help us plan for the future.

Population growth

       In the past, infant and childhood deaths and short life spans used to limit population growth.  In today’s world, due to improved nutrition, sanitation, and medical care, more babies survive their first few years of life. The combination of a continuing high birth rate and a low death rate is creating a rapid population increase in many countries in Asia,  Latin America and Africa and people generally live longer.  It took the entire history of humankind for the population to reach 1 billion around 1810. Just 120 years later, this doubled to 2 billion people (1930); then 4 billion in 1975 (45 years). The number of people in the world has risen from 4.4 billion people in 1980 to 7 billion in 2011. It is estimated that the population could double again in less than 40 years. 

       According to a report by the United Nation Population fund, total population is likely to reach 10 billion by 2025 and grow to 14 billion by the end of the next century unless birth control use increases dramatically around the world within the next two decades. Both death rates and birth rates have fallen, but death rates have fallen faster than birth rates.

2.    Causes

       Until recently, birth rates and death rates were about the same, keeping the population stable. People had many children, but a large number of them died before the age of five. The success in reducing death rates is attributable to several factors:

       a. Increase in food production and distribution,

       b. Improvement in public health (water and sanitation), and

       c. Medical technology (vaccines and antibiotics)

       d. New medicines

       e. Dietetics

       f.  Gains in education and standards of living within many developing nations.

       Without these factors many children could not have survived common diseases like measles or the flu. People are able to fight and cure deadly germs that once killed them. In addition, because of the technology, people can produce more and different kinds of food. Gradually, over a period of time, these discoveries and inventions lead to lowering of death rates and improvement in the quality of life for most people.

a.    Increase in Food Production and Distribution

       i) The remarkable fact about the last 150 years has been the ability of farmers to increase food production geometrically in some places. Much of the world experienced agricultural success, especially in the last 50 years. In more recent years, the technology has produced a broader variety of techniques: new kinds of seed, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and more sophisticated machinery. The use of technology has made possible the rapid expansion of agriculture.

       During the past 10 years, the world’s food production has increased by 24 per cent, outpacing the rate of population growth. However, this increase was not evenly distributed throughout the world. For example, in Africa, food production decreased, while population increased. Lack of money to buy food results in  malnourishment. Within households, men and boys have priority for whatever food is available, while women and children, especially girl children are the first to suffer malnutrition. Few resources are available to women, even though they are often responsible for food supply.

       ii) Green Revolution – Using high yielding varieties of seeds has led to an increase in production of rice, wheat, maize and other farm produce. India has become self sufficient in food due to the green revolution.

       iii) White Revolution - Artificial insemination and embryo transfer technology has led to the development of new varieties of cattle that give a high yield of milk. New high producing strains of sheep  for fine wool and fast-growing poultry broilers (chicken) have been developed.

       iv) Blue Revolution - The rapid increase of fish production in small ponds and water bodies, is a boon to small farmers, the nation’s nutrition and its gross domestic product.

Population Explosion -  India  scenario

                For developing countries like India, population explosion is a curse and is damaging to the development of the country and it’s society. With the rapidly increasing population, resources available per person are reduced further, leading to increased poverty, malnutrition, and other large population-related problems.

    

In the 15th National Census India’s population on 31st March 2011 was 1.21 billion increasing the urgency for the country to control its population growth.  Some of the reasons for this population explosion are poverty, better medical facilities, and immigration from the neighbouring countries of Bangladesh and Nepal. Several solutions to decrease the rate of population increase have been tried by the government, some successful, some unsuccessful. The population in India continues to increase at an alarming rate. The effects of this population increase are evident in the increasing poverty, unemployment, air and water pollution, and shortage of food, health resources and educational resources.

1.    Reasons for Population Increase

a.    Birth Rate

i.      India currently faces approximately “ 33 births a minute, 2,000 an hour, 48,000 a day, which calculates to nearly 12 million a year”. Unfortunately, the resources do not increase as the population increases. Instead the resources keep decreasing, leading to making survival for a human being more and more competitive even for the basic necessities of life like food, clothing and shelter.

ii.     Poverty.

         One of the most important reasons for this population increase in India is poverty. The people, who have to struggle to make two ends meet produce more children because more children mean more earning hands. Also, due to poverty, the infant mortality rate among such families is higher due to the lack of facilities like food and medical resources. Thus, they produce more children assuming that not all of them would be able to survive. The end result is a mounting increase in the population size of India. Due to the increase in population, the problems of scarce resources and  jobs, poverty increases. As the poverty and the population both increase, the development of the country and the society seems even more far-fetched.

iii.    Religious beliefs, Traditions and Cultural Norms

            India’s culture runs very deep and far back in history. One of India’s cultural norms is for a girl to get married at an early age. In most of the rural areas and in some urban areas as well, families prefer to get their girls married at the age of 14 or 15. Although child marriage is illegal in India, the culture and the society surrounding the girls in India does not allow them to oppose such decisions taken by their family.   Due to the young age of these girls, they start bearing children at a very early age and they have more children throughout their lifetime. Since these girls get married at a very early age, they do not have the opportunity to get educated. Therefore, they remain uneducated and teach the same norms to their own children, and the tradition goes on from one generation to the other.

b.     Death Rate

         Although poverty has increased and the development of the country continues to be hampered, the improvements in medical facilities have been tremendous. This improvement has led to a decrease in death rate and consequently an increase in population.

         The average life expectancy of people in India has increased.  In 1980 it was 53 and in  2011 it is more than 65 years ! In addition, abortion is not allowed by several religions that are followed in India. In fact, in many leading religions of India, children are considered to be gifts of God, and so the more children a woman has, the more she is respected in her family and society.

c.      Migration

       People from neighbouring countries like Bangladesh, Pakistan and Nepal, migrate to India adding to the population.       

2.     Available Measures to Control Population

         The government of India has been organizing several programs for limiting the population increase and has been spending millions of rupees on controlling the birth rate. Some of the programs have been successful, and the rate of increase has also reduced, but it has still to reach the sustainable rate. Several government-funded agencies like the Family Planning Association of India spend hundreds of thousands of rupees on promoting family planning. These organizations aim to promote family planning as a basic human right and the norm of a two-child family on a voluntary basis, to achieve a balance between the population size and resources, to prepare young people for responsible attitudes in human sexuality, and to provide education and services to all. The family planning methods provided by the family planning program are vasectomy, tubectomy, Intra Uterine Contraceptive Devices (IUD’s) , conventional contraceptives i.e. condoms, diaphragms, jelly/cream tubes, and oral pills. In addition, induced abortion is available, free of charge, in institutions recognized by the government for this purpose. However, the success of the family planning program in India depends on several factors like literacy and religion.

3.     Problems to Implementing Measures to control Population

         The success of family planning greatly depends on women and their status. Hence, women should                be educated so that they can decide on the number of children they want and be aware of the available birth control measures. Women also need to get educated about the impacts of having so many children on their own bodies and the impacts on their children. In addition, not only the young ones, but also the older women need to be educated so that they can teach the right family planning methods to their own daughters.        

        In India, most of the population lives in the rural areas. However, family planning is not widely advertised in rural areas. In fact, family planning is considered a sin in most of the tribal and rural communities.

 

Family welfare Programmes-methods of sterilization:

Sterilization is the most popular method of contraception in India. As the demand for sterilization services remains very high with a large unmet need, the country has continued with the camp mode (mobile clinic) to reach the people in under-served and under-reached areas. Although the Family Welfare Programme has begun to give higher priority to spacing methods than to permanent methods, sterilization is expected to remain the most popular method for the foreseeable future. Unfortunately, the government of India has paid little attention to the quality of sterilization services, and has tended instead to emphasize achieving targeted numbers of cases.

 

Urbanization:

Urbanization is a population shift from rural to urban areas, and the ways in which society adapts to the change. It predominantly results in the physical growth of urban areas, be it horizontal or vertical. The United Nations projected that half of the world's populationwould live in urban areas at the end of 2008. It is predicted that by 2050 about 64% of the developing world and 86% of the developed world will be urbanized.

Urbanization is relevant to a range of disciplines, including geography, sociology, economics, urban planning, and public health. The phenomenon has been closely linked to modernization, industrialization, and the sociological process of rationalization. Urbanization can be seen as a specific condition at a set time (e.g. the proportion of total population or area in cities or towns) or as an increase in that condition over time. So urbanization can be quantified either in terms of, say, the level of urban development relative to the overall population, or as the rate at which the urban proportion of the population is increasing.

Urbanization is not merely a modern phenomenon, but a rapid and historic transformation of human social roots on a global scale, whereby predominantly rural culture is being rapidly replaced by predominantly urban culture.

Environment & human health-climate and human health:

Weather and climate play a significant role in people's health. Changes in climate affect the average weather conditions that we are accustomed to. Warmer average temperatures will likely lead to hotter days and more frequent and longer heat waves. This could increase the number of heat-related illnesses and deaths. Increases in the frequency or severity of extreme weather events such as storms could increase the risk of dangerous flooding, high winds, and other direct threats to people and property. Warmer temperatures could increase the concentrations of unhealthy air and water pollutants. Changes in temperature, precipitation patterns, and extreme events could enhance the spread of some diseases.

Impacts from Heat Waves

Heat waves can lead to heat stroke and dehydration, and are the most common cause of weather-related deaths. ^[1] [2] Excessive heat is more likely to impact populations in northern latitudes where people are less prepared to cope with excessive temperatures. Young children, older adults, people with medical conditions, and the poor are more vulnerable than others to heat-related illness. 

Impacts from Extreme Weather Events

The frequency and intensity of extreme precipitation events is projected to increase in some locations, as is the severity (wind speeds and rain) of tropical storms. ^[1]These extreme weather events could cause injuries and, in some cases, death. As with heat waves, the people most at risk include young children, older adults, people with medical conditions, and the poor. Extreme events can also indirectly threaten human health in a number of ways. For example, extreme events can:

·         Reduce the availability of fresh food and water. ^[2]

·         Interrupt communication, utility, and health care services. ^[2]

·         Contribute to carbon monoxide poisoning from portable electric generators used during and after storms.^[2]

·         Increase stomach and intestinal illness among evacuees. ^[1]

·         Contribute to mental health impacts such as depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Impacts from Reduced Air Quality

Increases in Ozone

·         Ground-level ozone can damage lung tissue and can reduce lung function and inflame airways. This can increase respiratory symptoms and aggravate asthma or other lung diseases. It is especially harmful to children, older adults, outdoor workers, and those with asthma and other chronic lung diseases. 

·         Ozone exposure also has been associated with increased susceptibility to respiratory infections, medication use, doctor visits, and emergency department visits and hospital admissions for individuals with lung disease. Some studies suggest that ozone may increase the risk of premature mortality, and possibly even the development of asthma. 

·         Ground-level ozone is formed when certain air pollutants, such as carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen (also called NO_X), and volatile organic compounds, are exposed to each other in sunlight. Ground-level ozone is one of the pollutants in smog. 

·         Because warm, stagnant air tends to increase the formation of ozone, climate change is likely to increase levels of ground-level ozone in already-polluted areas of the United States and increase the number of days with poor air quality.

Changes in Fine Particulate Matter

Particulate matter is the term for a category of extremely small particles and liquid droplets suspended in the atmosphere. Fine particles include particles smaller than 2.5 micrometers (about one ten-thousandth of an inch). These particles may be emitted directly or may be formed in the atmosphere from chemical reactions of gases such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and volatile organic compounds.

·         Inhaling fine particles can lead to a broad range of adverse health effects, including premature mortality, aggravation of cardiovascular and respiratory disease, development of chronic lung disease, exacerbation of asthma, and decreased lung function growth in children. 

·         Sources of fine particle pollution include power plants, gasoline and diesel engines, wood combustion, high-temperature industrial processes such as smelters and steel mills, and forest fires

Impacts from Climate-Sensitive Diseases

Changes in climate may enhance the spread of some diseases. ^[1] Disease-causing agents, called pathogens, can be transmitted through food, water, and animals such as deer, birds, mice, and insects. Climate change could affect all of these transmitters.

Food-borne Diseases

·         Higher air temperatures can increase cases of salmonella and other bacteria-related food poisoning because bacteria grow more rapidly in warm environments. These diseases can cause gastrointestinal distress and, in severe cases, death. ^[1]

·         Flooding and heavy rainfall can cause overflows from sewage treatment plants into fresh water sources. Overflows could contaminate certain food crops with pathogen-containing feces.

Water-borne Diseases

·         Heavy rainfall or flooding can increase water-borne parasites such asCryptosporidium and Giardia that are sometimes found in drinking water. ^[1]These parasites can cause gastrointestinal distress and in severe cases, death.

·         Heavy rainfall events cause stormwater runoff that may contaminate water bodies used for recreation (such as lakes and beaches) with other bacteria. ^[9] The most common illness contracted from contamination at beaches is gastroenteritis, an inflammation of the stomach and the intestines that can cause symptoms such as vomiting, headaches, and fever. Other minor illnesses include ear, eye, nose, and throat infections

Infectious diseases:

Infectious diseases are disorders caused by organisms — such as bacteria, viruses, fungi or parasites. Many organisms live in and on our bodies. They're normally harmless or even helpful, but under certain conditions, some organisms may cause disease.

Some infectious diseases can be passed from person to person. Some are transmitted by bites from insects or animals. And others are acquired by ingesting contaminated food or water or being exposed to organisms in the environment.

Signs and symptoms vary depending on the organism causing the infection, but often include fever and fatigue. Mild complaints may respond to rest and home remedies, while some life-threatening infections may require hospitalization.

Many infectious diseases, such as measles and chickenpox, can be prevented by vaccines. Frequent and thorough hand-washing also helps protect you from infectious diseases.

Water related diseases:

Waterborne diseases are caused by pathogenic microorganisms that most commonly are transmitted in contaminated fresh water. Infection commonly results during bathing, washing, drinking, in the preparation of food, or the consumption of food thus infected. Various forms of waterborne diarrheal disease probably are the most prominent examples, and affect mainly children in developing countries; according to the World Health Organization, such diseases account for an estimated 4.1% of the total DALY global burden of disease, and cause about 1.8 million human deaths annually. The World Health Organization estimates that 88% of that burden is attributable to unsafe water supply, sanitation and hygiene.

Risk due to chemicals in food:

ood contains nutrients essential for health, but it may also include chemicals that can increase your risk of disease. These chemicals can include pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers, preservatives, artificial colors and flavors, and industrially produced fats and sweeteners. Not all of these substances may appear on the food product label.

Pesticides

Fruits and vegetables that contain pesticide residues can be a health risk for people of all ages. Research by scientists at the Harvard University School of Public Health published in “Pediatrics" in June 20101 discovered exposure to organophosphates may contribute to the prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children. Children who switch to organic produce no longer have significant levels of organophosphates in their urine, according to research by scientists at Emory University published in "Environmental Health Perspectives" in April 2008. Exposure to a combination of the pesticide maneb and the herbicide paraquat increases risks of Parkinson’s disease, especially in young people, according to research by scientists at the University of California in Berkeley published in the "American Journal of Epidemiology" in April 2009.

Preservatives

Manufacturers use preservatives such as nitrites and sulfites in processed foods to inhibit growth of microorganisms and increase shelf life. Yet these preservatives increase your health risk. Nitrites are common preservatives used in processed meats and fish to prevent bacterial growth. Your body converts nitrites to carcinogenic substances called nitrosamines. Research by Susanna Larsson at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm published in the "International Journal of Cancer" in August 2006 found that increased nitrosamine consumption from processed meat increases the risk of stomach cancer. Sulfites used to preserve dried fruits, fruit juices, wine and beer may increase the risk of asthma attacks, according to the Cleveland Clinic.

Artificial Colors

Artificial colors increase consumer appeal but may also increase your risk of disease. The Center for Science in the Public Interest, a consumer advocacy group, reports that caramel coloring used in many popular cola soft drinks contains two chemicals called 2-methylimidazole and 4-methylimadazole that cause cancers of the lungs, liver and thyroid and leukemia. Food colorings such as Yellow No. 5, 6 and10 and Red No. 40 can increase the risk of or exacerbate hyperactive behavior in children.

Fats and Sweeteners

Industrially produced fats and sweeteners common in processed foods are bad for your health. Manufacturers use transfats -- which increase your risk of coronary artery disease -- in breads, cookies, margarine and microwave popcorn. High-fructose corn syrup, a sweetener used in soft drinks, salad dressings and desserts, can increase your risk of obesity, according to research by scientists at Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge published in "The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition" in April 2004. Piedmont Hospital in Atlanta reports eating high-fructose corn syrup can increase your risk of diabetes.

Cancer and environment:

Cancer develops over several years and has many causes. Several factors both inside and outside the body contribute to the development of cancer. In this context, scientists refer to everything outside the body that interacts with humans as the “environment.”

Exposure to a wide variety of natural and man-made substances in the environment accounts for at least two-thirds of all the cases of cancer in the United States. These environmental factors include lifestyle choices like cigarette smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, poor diet, lack of exercise, excessive sunlight exposure, and sexual behavior that increases exposure to certain viruses . Other factors include exposure to certain medical drugs, hormones, radiation, viruses, bacteria, and environmental chemicals that may be present in the air, water, food, and workplace. The cancer risks associated with many environmental chemicals have been identified through studies of occupational groups that have higher exposures to these chemicals than the general population.

The importance of the environment can be seen in the differences in cancer rates throughout the world and the change in cancer rates when groups of people move from one country to another.

Unit VI: Social issues and environment

Construction of dams:

A dam built across a river will obviously have a major effect on the river valley upstream of the dam which will be flooded as the new storage reservoir fills. Less obvious is that the river downstream of the dam will also be significantly affected. Large dam projects are highly individual in their design, geological setting and the construction materials used to build them. They are also individual in their impact on their environment.

The environmental consequences of large dams are numerous and varied, and includes direct impacts to the biological, chemical and physical properties of rivers and riparian (or "stream-side") environments.

The dam wall itself blocks fish migrations, which in some cases and with some species completely separate spawning habitats from rearing habitats.  The dam also traps sediments, which are critical for maintaining physical processes and habitats downstream of the dam (include the maintenance of productive deltas, barrier islands, fertile floodplains and coastal wetlands).

Another significant and obvious impact is the transformation upstream of the dam from a free-flowing river ecosystem to an artificial slack-water reservoir habitat. Changes in temperature, chemical composition, dissolved oxygen levels and the physical properties of a reservoir are often not suitable to the aquatic plants and animals that evolved with a given river system. Indeed, reservoirs often host non-native and invasive species (e.g. snails, algae, predatory fish) that further undermine the river's natural communities of plants and animals. 

The alteration of a river's flow and sediment transport downstream of a dam often causes the greatest sustained environmental impacts. Life in and around a river evolves and is conditioned on the timing and quantities of river flow.  Disrupted and altered water flows can be as severe as completely de-watering river reaches and the life they contain.  Yet even subtle changes in the quantity and timing of water flows impact aquatic and riparian life, which can unravel the ecological web of a river system. 

A dam also holds back sediments that would naturally replenish downstream ecosystems. When a river is deprived of its sediment load, it seeks to recapture it by eroding the downstream river bed and banks (which can undermine bridges and other riverbank structures, as well as riverside woodlands). Riverbeds downstream of dams are typically eroded by several meters within the decade of first closing a dam; the damage can extend for tens or even hundreds of kilometers below a dam.

Riverbed deepening (or "incising") will also lower groundwater tables along a river, lowering the water table accessible to plant roots (and to human communities drawing water from wells) .  Altering the riverbed also reduces habitat for fish that spawn in river bottoms, and for invertebrates.

In aggregate, dammed rivers have also impacted processes in the broader biosphere.  Most reservoirs, especially those in the tropics, are significant contributors to greenhouse gas emissions (a recent study pegged global greenhouse gas emissions from reservoirs on par with that of the aviation industry, about 4% of human-caused GHG emissions).  Recent studies on the Congo River have demonstrated that the sediment and nutrient flow from the Congo drives biological processes far into the Atlantic Ocean, including serving as a carbon sink for atmospheric greenhouse gases.

Problems and concerns of resettlement:

Resettlement and rehabilitation

People are forced to move out of their land due to both natural and man made disasters. Natural disasters like earthquakes, cyclones, tsunami etc. render thousands of people homeless and sometime even force them to move and resettle in other areas. Similarly, developmental projects like construction of roads, dams, canals and flyovers displace people form their home. You must all be aware of the recent nuclear leakage in Japan due to which millions of people were forced to leave the area for their safety. Thus, resettlement refer to the process of settling again in a new area. Rehabilitation means restoration to the former state.

Reasons for displacement of people

·  Natural disasters like earthquake, cyclones, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, prolonged droughts conditions, floods, hurricanes etc.

·  Man made disasters like industrial accidents ( e.g. Bhopal gas tragedy), nuclear accidents( Current disaster in Japan), oil spills( Exxon Valdez oil spill), toxic contamination of sites etc.

·  In search of better employment opportunities.

·  Developmental projects like:

·  construction of dams, irrigation canals, reservoirs etc.

·  Infrastructural projects like flyovers, bridges, roads etc.

·  transportation activities like roads, highway, canal etc.

·  Energy related project like power plants, oil exploration, mining activities, pipelines like HBJ pipeline etc.

·  Agricultural projects

·  Projects related with the conservation of wildlife like national parks, sanctuaries and biosphere reserves.

Resettlement issues

As per the World Bank estimates, nearly 10 lakh people are displaced worldwide for a variety of reasons. I have tried to mention a few of the sufferings that these people have to face but we are unable to feel for them:

·  Little or no support: Displacement mainly hits tribal and rural people who usually do not figure in the priority list of any political authorities or parties. Why do you think that the rural people have become the red Robinhoods of today which are the Maoists?

·  Meager compensation: The compensation for the land lost is often not paid, it is delayed or even if paid, is too small both in monetary terms and social changes forced on them by these mega developmental projects.

·  Loss of livelihood: Displacement is not a simple incident in the lives of the displaced people. They have to leave their ancestral land and forests on which they depend for their livelihood. Many of them have no skills to take up another activity or pick up any other occupation. Usually, the new land that is offered to them is of poor quality and the refugees are unable to make a living.

·  Lack of facilities: When people are resettled in a new area, basic infrastructure and amenities are not provided in that area. Very often, temporary camps become permanent settlements. It is also a major problem of displacement or resettlement that people have to face.

·  Increase in stress: Resettlement disrupt the entire life of the people. They are unable to bear the shocks of emptiness and purposelessness created in their life. Payment of compensation to the head of the family often lead to bitter quarrels over sharing of compensation amount within the family, leading to stress and even withering of family life. Moreover, land ownership has a certain prestige attached to it which cannot be compensated for even after providing the new land. With the loss of property and prestige, marriages of young people also become difficult as people from outside villages are not willing to marry their daughters to the refugees.

·  Increase in health problems: Lack of nutrition due to the loss of agriculture and forest based livelihood, lead to the general decline in the health of the people. People are used to traditional home remedies. But th herbal remedies and plants gets submerged due to the developmental projects.

·  Secondary displacement: Occupational groups residing outside the submergence area but depending on the area for the livelihood also experience unemployment. Village artisans, petty traders, laborers etc, lose their living.

·  Loss of identity: Tribal life is community based. The tribal are simple people who have a lifestyle of their own. Displacement have a negative impact on their livelihood, culture and spiritual existence in the following ways:

·  Break up of families and communities are the important social issues of displacement. The women suffer the most as they are deprived even a little compensation.

·  Inter-community marriages, cultural functions, folk songs and dances do not take place among the displaced people. When they are resettled, it is generally individual based resettlement, which ignores communal character.

·  Resettlement increases the poverty of the tribal due to the loss of land, livelihood, food insecurity, jobs, skills etc.

·  Loss of identity of individuals and the loss of connection between the people and the environment is the greatest loss in the process. The indigenous knowledge that they have regarding the wildlife and the herbal plants are lost.

·  The land acquisition laws do not pay attention to the idea of communal ownership of property which increases stress within the family.

·  The tribal people are not familiar with the market trends, prices of commodities and policies. As such, they are exploited and get alienated in the modern era. My mother often says about the plight of people from Nepal who came newly to the city of Gangtok. Earlier, when they demanded four meters cloth piece, the shopkeeper used to measure the same from all the four sides of the piece. Actually it was only one meter in length but they used to charge the priced of four meter cloth.

Objectives of rehabilitation

The following objectives of rehabilitation should be kept in mind before the people are given an alternative site for living:

·  Tribal people should be allowed to live along the lives of their own patterns and others should avoid imposing anything on them.

·  They should be provided means to develop their own traditional art and culture in every way.

·  Villagers should be given the option of shifting out with others to enable them to live a community based life.

·  Removal of poverty should be one of the objectives of rehabilitation.

·  The people displaced should get an appropriate share in the fruits of the development. I should say that it is really a good move by ISC to share its profits among the active contributors.

·  The displaced people should be given employment opportunities.

·  Resettlement should be in the neighborhood of their own environment.

·  If resettlement is not possible in the neighbor area, priority should be given to the development of the irrigation facilities and supply of basic inputs for agriculture, drinking water, wells, grazing ground for the cattle, schools for the children, primary healthcare units and other amenities.

·  Villagers should be taken into confidence at every stage of implementation of the displacement and they should be educated, through public meetings, discussion about the legalities of the Land Acquisition act and other rehabilitation provisions.

·  The elderly people of the village should be involved in the decision making.

Examples of resettlement and rehabilitation

·  Displacement due to dams

India has been constructing dams and other hydel projects.In the last 50 years, 20 million people have been affected by the construction of such projects. 
The Hirakud dam displaced about 20000 people living in about 250 villages. The Bhakra Nangal dam was constructed around 1950's and displaced a number of people. Some of them could not be rehabilitated even today.

·  Displacement due to mining

Due to possibility of the accidents or sinking of the land, people have to displaced in and around the mining area. Mining take up several hectares of land thousands of people have to be evacuated.
Jharia coal fields posed a problem years ago to the local residents due to the underground fire. Some 3 lakh people were to be shifted and it became a problem to find n alternative site. A huge amount of money to the tune of Rs 115 crores has been spent to put out the fire. Still the problem persists.

Displacement in Japan due to nuclear crisis

You must all be aware of the current nuclear crisis in Japan where there was an explosion in three of the major reactors of Fukushima city due to tsunami. Currently, more than 2,00,000 people have been displaced form their native place and yet many are unable to find an alternative home. people were evacuated to protect them for the possible nuclear hazard and exposure. They are suffering from acute hunger as all the food supply was interrupted due to contamination of food particles by radiation.

Conservation: energy, water, forest, soil:

The Earth’s natural resources include air, water, soil,minerals, fuels, plants, and animals. Conservation is the practice of caring for these resources so all living things can benefit from them now and in the future.

All the things we need to survive, such as food, water, air, and shelter, come from natural resources. Some of these resources, like small plants, can be replaced quickly after they are used. Others, like large trees, take a long time to replace. These are renewable resources.

Other resources, such as fossil fuels, cannot be replaced at all. Once they are used up, they are gone forever. These are nonrenewable resources.

People often waste natural resources. Animals areoverhunted. Forests are cleared, exposing land to wind and water damage. Fertile soil is exhausted and lost toerosion because of poor farming practices. Fuel supplies are depleted. Water and air are polluted. 

Environmental ethics– issues and possible solutions:

The environmental issues are often discussed in terms of their scientific dimensions or their significance of public policy priorities.

However, the concern for environment is grounded in the value that human beings ascribe to nature itself. The value that is ascribed to nature is often embedded in cultural and religious traditions. The fact whether Indian religious and philosophical traditions embody an environmental ethic has been of interest to environmentalist from the time environment ethics was becoming established as an academic discipline.

It is indeed a matter of understanding that the environment is not just pretty trees and tigers threatened plants and ecosystems where as it is literally the entity on which we all subsist and on which our entire agricultural and industrial development depends. Development can take at the cost of environment only up to a certain point. Development without a concern for the environment cans only development for the short term.

India in several ways is a distinctive country, being developing among the developed and developed among the developing countries. It is a country where centuries coexist. The bullock cart, jet and space craft's all of relevance of Indian as bullock cart is to stay with us when we are likely to enter 21^st century. There are many places in India where the population of tribal's and advises are an inseparable part of nature. They consume from nature what they actually need their well being and also generate little waste which is biodegradable and also waste of one species is food for other as a result accumulations of waste does not occur.

It is worth mentioning that human is one such species in an ecosystem which is auto sustainable and self generating. Humans generate enormous quality of waste during production, processing and utilization of goods. It is true that some of such wastes are non - biodegradable which, thus, results in the accumulation degradation of the environment. In view of these two extreme situations, India is a country which is significantly different as compared to other countries of the world.

The type of conservation ethics in India is related with the culture, religions and philosophy from the Vedic times. The basic philosophy "of western countries is to exploitation of natural resources. The environmental damage in India is not in proportion to its long history where the teaching and principles of Mohair Buddha and Gandhi are ingrained in Indian culture concern for environment has now become a part of our daily life and that has come to us through countries.

If resources are carelessly managed, many will be used up. If used wisely and efficiently, however, renewable resources will last much longer. Through conservation, people can reduce waste and manage natural resources wisely.

The population of human beings has grown enormously in the past two centuries. Billions of people use up resources quickly as they eat food, build houses, produce goods, and burn fuel for transportation andelectricity. The continuation of life as we know it depends on the careful use of natural resources.

The need to conserve resources often conflicts with other needs. For some people, a wooded area may be a good place to put a farm. A timber company may want to harvest the area’s trees for construction materials. A business may want to build a factory or shopping mall on the land. 

All these needs are valid, but sometimes the plants and animals that live in the area are forgotten. The benefits of development need to be weighed against the harm to animals that may be forced to find new habitats, the depletion of resources we may want in the future (such as water or timber), or damage to resources we use today. 

Development and conservation can coexist in harmony. When we use the environment in ways that ensure we have resources for the future, it is called sustainable development. There are many different resources we need to conserve in order to live sustainably. 

Forests

A forest is a large area covered with trees grouped so their foliage shades the ground. Every continent except Antarctica has forests, from the evergreen-filled boreal forests of the north to mangrove forests in tropicalwetlands. Forests are home to more than two-thirds of all known land species. Tropical rain forests are especially rich in biodiversity.

Forests provide habitats for animals and plants. They store carbon, helping reduce global warming. They protect soil by reducing runoff. They add nutrients to the soil through leaf litter. They provide people with lumberand firewood.

Deforestation is the process of clearing away forests by cutting them down or burning them. People clear forests to use the wood, or to make way for farming or development. Each year, the Earth loses about 14.6 million hectares (36 million acres) of forest to deforestation—an area about the size of the U.S. state of New York. 

Deforestation destroys wildlife habitats and increases soil erosion. It also releases greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, contributing to global warming. Deforestation accounts for 15 percent of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions. Deforestation also harms the people who rely on forests for their survival, hunting and gathering, harvesting forest products, or using the timber for firewood.